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Sources

Sources used in The Plastic Paradox

The information that helped make this experience came from a variety of trusted sources including our NGO partners, government organizations, primary researchers, educational institutions, and research consultants.

We encourage you to dig in and learn more about the plastic paradox.

  1. Ellen MacArthur Foundation (October 2022). Perspective on 'Breaking the Plastic Wave' study: the circular economy solution to plastic pollution. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/perspective-on-breaking-the-plastic-wave-study
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  4. International Union for Conservation of Nature. (April 2024). Issues Brief | https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/2024-04/marine-plastic-pollution-issues-brief_nov21-april-2024-small-update_0.pdf (iucn.org)
  5. Kühn, S., & Van Franeker, J. A. (2020). Quantitative overview of marine debris ingested by marine megafauna. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 151, 110858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110858
  6. Law, K. L., Starr, N., Siegler, T. R., Jambeck, J., Mallos, N., & Leonard, G. B. (2020). The United States' contribution of plastic waste to land and ocean. Science Advances, 6(44). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd0288
  7. Senathirajah, K., Attwood, S., Bhagwat, G., Carbery, M., Wilson, S., & Thavamani, P. (2021). Estimation of the mass of microplastics ingested – A pivotal first step towards human health risk assessment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 404, 124004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124004
  8. Borenstein, S. (September 2024). The world is pumping out 57 million tons of plastic pollution a year. https://apnews.com/article/plastics-waste-pollution-oceans-global-south-dd9ce2a092c5d5826a3436d9f47764c7
  9. Boucher, J., & Friot, D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in the Oceans: A Global Evaluation of Sources. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2017.01.en
  10. Peeken, I., Primpke, S., Beyer, B., Gütermann, J., Katlein, C., Krumpen, T., Bergmann, M., Hehemann, L., & Gerdts, G. (2018). Arctic sea ice is an important temporal sink and means of transport for microplastic. Nature Communications, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03825-5
  11. Ross, P. S., Chastain, S., Vassilenko, E., Etemadifar, A., Zimmermann, S., Quesnel, S., Eert, J., Solomon, E., Patankar, S., Posacka, A. M., & Williams, B. (2021). Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs. Nature Communications, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1
  12. Microplastics: Are we facing a new health crisis – and what can be done about it? (2025, February 19). World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/02/how-microplastics-get-into-the-food-chain/
  13. World Health Organization, 2022. Dietary and inhalation exposure to nano- and microplastic particles and potential implications for human health, Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240054608
  14. Desforges, J., Galbraith, M., & Ross, P. S. (2015). Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 69(3), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0172-5
  15. Meijer, J., Prust, M. & Westerink, R. H. S., 2020. The plastic brain: neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 17(24). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12989-020-00358-y?utm_source=getftr&utm_medium=getftr&utm_campaign=getftr_pilot&getft_integrator=acs
  16. Myers, J. & North, M. Plastic pollution is growing relentlessly as waste management and recycling fall short, says OECD. (2022, February 2). https://www.oecd.org/newsroom/plastic-pollution-is-growing-relentlessly-as-waste-management-and-recycling-fall-short.htm
  17. Biswas, A. and Potnis, S. 2022. Plastic Bituminous Roads: A Sustainable Technology – For Better Handling Distresses. European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research. 7, 1 (Feb. 2022), 63–69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.1.2695
  18. Brock, A., & Williams, I. D. (2020). Life Cycle Assessment of Beverage Packaging. Deritus, 13, 47–61. https://doi.org/10.31025/2611-4135/2020.14025
  19. BASF Corporation (2023). Under the Lid: The Anatomy of a Paper Cup. https://insights.basf.com/home/article/read/anatomy-of-a-cup
  20. Napper, I. E., & Thompson, R. F. (2019). Environmental Deterioration of Biodegradable, Oxo-biodegradable, Compostable, and Conventional Plastic Carrier Bags in the Sea, Soil, and Open-Air Over a 3-Year Period. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(9), 4775–4783. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b06984
  21. Recycle BC. Annual Report (2023). https://recyclebc.ca/about/annual-reports/
  22. Marfella, R. et al., 2024. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Atheromas and Cardiovascular Events. The New England Journal of Medicine, 390(10), pp. 900-910.

  23. Microplastics are everywhere (Ragan, 2024) | UCHealth. https://www.uchealth.org/today/microplastics-are-everywhere-from-water-to-food-what-are-the-health-impacts

    Marfella, R. et al., 2024. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Atheromas and Cardiovascular Events. The New England Journal of Medicine, 390(10), pp. 900-910.

    Meijer, J., Prust, M. & Westerink, R. H. S., 2020. The plastic brain: neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 17(24). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12989-020-00358-y

  24. Environmental Protetction Agency. National Overview: Facts and Figures on Materials, Wastes and Recycling (November 2024). https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials
  25. Deer, R. (2021). Landfills: we're running of space. https://www.roadrunnerwm.com/blog/landfills-were-running-out-of-space
  26. Musulin, K. (2018). US landfill capacity to drop 15% over next 5 years. https://www.wastedive.com/news/us-landfill-capacity-decrease-SWEEP/523027/
  27. Thorsberg, C. (2024). Hermit Crabs Are Using Trash as Shells Across the World, Scientists Find. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/hermit-crabs-using-trash-as-shells-across-the-world-scientists-find-180983701/#:~:text=Humans%20might%20also%20pick%20up,more%20prevalent%20in%20aquatic%20habitats
  28. Whiting, K. (2018). This is how long everyday plastic items last in the ocean. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/11/chart-of-the-day-this-is-how-long-everyday-plastic-items-last-in-the-ocean/#:~:text=But%20it%20takes%20the%20ocean,to%20biodegrade%20in%20the%20sea